A Ton of Crap Read online

  LESSON 1C

  MESOPOTAMIA AND THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS

  The Akkadians The Akkadians were a Semitic people from the Arabic peninsula who increasingly came into more conflict with the Sumerians as they migrated north. In 2340 b.c., Sargon, the Akkadian military leader, conquered Sumerian city-states and established an Akkadian empire over the land. Sargon established his rule in the city of Akkad, and created the largest empire known to man at that time. The empire was short-lived, and in 2125, the Akkadian Empire fell.

  PUNCTUATION

  The Comma The comma has many uses. A comma should be used when separating any independent clause that is joined by the conjunctions and, yet, so, but, for, nor, or. A comma is also used to separate items in a list or series and after an introductory adverb clause. The comma can also be used to interrupt a sentence to add extra information. For example, “Her dog, which had jumped in the puddle, was soaking wet.”

  NUMBERS

  The Egyptian Numbers The number system of Ancient Egypt was made up of hieroglyphs. Using this system of writing, where values and words are depicted with images, the Egyptians were able to note numbers all the way to 1,000,000 and perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The ancient Egyptians also had a very good understanding of fractions, and the use of fractions was so important that scribes would create tables for temple personnel referencing the division of supplies and food.

  EVOLUTION

  Natural Selection Darwin’s most groundbreaking idea was his theory of natural selection. This theory states that when there is an environmental change, only the organisms with the traits best suiting them to the new environmental conditions will survive. Those organisms that do not have these desirable traits cannot compete, and will die off. If enough traits change, over time, this could lead to a new creature or organism entirely.

  LATIN

  Vulgar Latin Vulgar Latin, not Classical Latin, is the closest ancestor to the Romance languages. Vulgar Latin was the Latin spoken by the common people, and was a simpler form of Classical Latin, which was reserved for literature. Vulgar Latin varied across the Roman Empire due to the influence of the languages of local populations. By the time the Roman Empire disintegrated after a.d. 600, the local forms of Vulgar Latin were so distinct, they became the Romance languages.

  LESSON 1D

  MESOPOTAMIA AND THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS

  Babylonia As the last Sumerian dynasty fell, the Amorites came to power, basing their capital in Babylon. One of the most notable legal texts in history comes from this time period, when the king, Hammurabi, created one of the first sets of written laws. This is called the Code of Hammurabi. These laws were written out so that all would know the punishments if they disobeyed them. One of the most famous paraphrases of this code is “An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.”

  PUNCTUATION

  The Semicolon A general rule is you can use a semicolon instead of a period when having two sentences without a conjunction in between them. For example, “Give me your number; I’ll call you when I get home.” A semicolon should also be used before introductory words like however, therefore, and namely. One can also use a semicolon when, if writing a series, one or more of the items contains a comma, or when two sentences are joined by a coordinating conjunction and there are commas in the first sentence.

  NUMBERS

  Roman Numerals Roman numerals were at least somewhat influenced by the Greek number system based on the alphabet. Many believe Roman numerals were originally created based on the shape of the hand. One finger representing the number one as I, and V, meaning five, expressed as the whole hand spread out. Reading Roman numerals is fairly simple, as they are read from left to right, with the larger number at the beginning and other numbers added as you move to the right. To subtract, the smaller number is placed in front of the larger number.

  EVOLUTION

  On the Origin of Species Darwin published his findings and his theory of natural selection in his book, On the Origin of Species, in 1859. Darwin stated that as a result of natural selection, organisms must have evolved over time, which led to the wide variety of species. He also stated that all of these organisms must have originated from a common ancestor. His beliefs were quite controversial at the time, as the British scientific world was closely linked to the Church of England.

  LATIN

  Medieval Latin Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in the Middle Ages, from a.d. 500 to 1500. While it was primarily used by the Roman Catholic Church, it was also found in literature, law, administration, and science. The major distinction found in the Latin used at this time is that it began to have a wider vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, influenced by the various languages of the time.

  LESSON 1E

  MESOPOTAMIA AND THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS

  The Hittites No one knows the origins of the Hittites, and until recently, their language was undecipherable (it was in the Indo-European family). Their invasion brought the end of the Old Babylonian Empire; however, as they conquered Mesopotamia, they adopted the laws, literature, and religion of Old Babylon. The Hittites are most notable for their work involved in trade and commerce, which spread Mesopotamian literature and thought all over the Mediterranean.

  PUNCTUATION

  The Colon A colon is used if one wishes to emphasize the second clause when writing two independent clauses. For example, “The time had passed: his date never showed up.” A colon can also be used when introducing a list, a quotation, an appositive (in which two phrases are placed next to each other, with one serving to define or change the other), or another idea related to the independent clause.

  NUMBERS

  Arabic Numerals Arabic numerals were developed in India in a.d. 600, and it is the current system we have today. However, until a.d. 952, these numerals were actually written backward. In a.d. 952, this system was brought to Europe and the numerals were flipped. The shape of the numerals is actually derived from the number of angles in the shape of the number. The numeral 1 has one angle, the numeral 2 has two angles, and so on.

  EVOLUTION

  Genetic Drift Another important aspect of evolution is genetic drift. However, unlike natural selection, genetic drift does not allow for adaptations. Rather, genetic drift is by chance. In every generation of an organism, chance plays a key part in who lives and who dies. Some individuals may leave behind more descendents than others, meaning the genes of these organisms will be passed on. The genes will pass on simply because of luck, and not because of a genetic advantage.

  LATIN

  Renaissance Latin Similar to how the Renaissance in Italy placed emphasis on a return to Classicism, the Latin at this time was used to purge the language of the changes made from Medieval Latin. People wished to return to the language that was used in the Golden Age of Latin Literature during the Roman Empire. The humanists’ efforts were successful in education, but ultimately, this wish to return to Classicism would lead to the extinction of the language.

  LESSON 1F

  MESOPOTAMIA AND THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS

  Inventions Many important inventions came out of Mesopotamia. The seeder plow was revolutionary in agriculture and allowed seeding and plowing to occur simultaneously. The people of Mesopotamia also created a writing system based on images called cuneiform, developed irrigation and sanitation methods, created glass, and around 3500 b.c., invented the wheel. They were also the first to harness wind energy by creating sails.

  PUNCTUATION

  The Dash An em dash is used to place emphasis on or set content apart from the rest of the text. Named because it is the width of an M, this dash is longer and places more importance on text than parentheses do. For example, “A lot of people were in the crowd—Tom and Scott among them.” The en dash, which is the width of an N, is shorter and is used to indicate a span of values between two numbers. For example, “For ages 3–5.”

  NUMBERS

  Real Numbers Real numbers are whole numbers, suc
h as 1, 2, 3, etc. Rational and irrational numbers as well as positive and negative numbers are also real numbers. Real numbers get the name “real” because they are not “imaginary.” An imaginary number is any number that becomes negative when squared. Imaginary numbers were at one time believed to be impossible, but are actually useful in calculating things such as electricity.

  EVOLUTION

  Mutation Mutation is the last crucial part to evolution. Natural selection and genetic drift explain why organisms change, but they don’t necessarily explain how. A mutation is a change in the DNA of an organism that affects appearance, behavior, and the organism’s physiology. These mutations enable the changes that Darwin mentions. Mutations are random, and not all mutations lead to evolution. If a mutation doesn’t occur in reproductive cells, it is somatic and it will not be passed on to offspring.

  LATIN

  An Extinct Language and New Latin Because humanists during the Renaissance were writing in an old language, they did not have the proper vocabulary for current issues. This gave the language an old, antiquated feel. Over time, less was written in Latin, until ultimately, the language became extinct. From that point on and to this day, the most common form of Latin is known as New Latin. This is Latin used for international scientific vocabulary, systematics, and the classification of species.

  LESSON 1 QUIZ

  What river or rivers did the Sumerians first develop civilizations on?

  The Nile River

  Tigris and Euphrates

  The Indus

  Amu Darya

  What are the Hittites most known for?

  Inventing the wheel

  Creating cuneiform

  Expanding trade and commerce

  Creating the Code of Hammurabi

  Which of the following is correct?

  When you’ve finished the last part of your exam, put your pencils down.

  When you’ve finished the last part of your exam. Put your pencils down.

  When you’ve, finished the last part of your exam; put your pencils down.

  When—You’ve finished the last part of your exam put your pencils down.

  When is the en dash used?

  It can be used instead of a comma.

  It can be used to place emphasis on one of two connected independent clauses.

  To end a train of thought.

  To indicate a span of values between two numbers.

  What is the current number system we use today?

  Arabic Numerals

  Egyptian Numbers

  Greek Numbers

  Babylonian Numerals

  What is an imaginary number?

  A negative number

  A number that when multiplied the result is positive

  A number that when squared the result is negative

  A number that when squared the result is positive

  What did Charles Darwin

  notice about the finches of the Galapagos?

  Their legs were different sizes.

  Their beaks were different shapes and sizes.

  Their wings were different shapes and sizes.

  Their beaks were different colors.

  Genetic drift is a result of:

  Chance

  Luck

  Mutations

  A and B

  The closest ancestor to the Romance languages is:

  Classical Latin

  New Latin

  Vulgar Latin

  Medieval Latin

  Latin became an extinct language because:

  The language blended with other languages until it was unrecognizable.

  All of the people who spoke it died.

  During the Renaissance, people wanted to return to a time before people spoke Latin.

  Latin didn’t have vocabulary relevant to current issues and felt old and antiquated.

  ANSWER KEY: b, c, a, d, a, c, b, d, c, d

  Lesson 2

  HISTORY: Xia Dynasty

  Real or Legend?, Yu the Great, The Political Systems, Decline of the Xia Dynasty, Controversies Today, Archaeological Findings

  LANGUAGE ARTS: Phonics

  What Is Phonics?, Synthetic Phonics, Analytical Phonics, Vowel Patterns, Consonant Patterns, Alphabetic Principle

  MATH: Zero

  A Placeholder, A Number That Means Nothing, The First Use of Zero, The Origins of the Symbol, The Rules of Brahmagupta,

  Other Rules of Zero

  SCIENCE: Cells

  The Basic Unit of Life, Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells, Plant Cells, Animal Cells, Structure of a Cell, The Nucleus

  FOREIGN LANGUAGE: Spanish

  The History of the Spanish Language, Making Spanish Official, Spanish Spreads, Framing a Sentence, Spanish Today, Useful Phrases

  LESSON 2A

  XIA DYNASTY

  Real or Legend? The Xia Dynasty, said to be the first dynasty of China, is supposed to have lasted from the twenty-first to the seventeenth century b.c. with seventeen emperors. There is little evidence showing the existence of the Xia Dynasty, and whether it actually existed or is merely a legend told in the ancient texts is still up for debate.

  PHONICS

  What Is Phonics? Phonics is a method of teaching English. The main idea is that first students are taught the various sounds of the English language, and then they are taught the letters of the alphabet that those sounds correspond to. The advantage to learning English in this way is that once the main sounds have been mastered, one can learn to read many English words much quicker.

  ZERO

  A Placeholder The zero has many functions. One very important function zero has is as a placeholder. The difference between 500, 50, and 501 is the placement and amount of zero digits. Even though the value zero is nothing, the digit zero means something. We understand that 501 is not the same thing as 51. The notion of the placeholder was first used by the Babylonians.

  CELLS

  The Basic Unit of Life The cell is the smallest unit of life in an organism’s body. Each cell has its own unique feature and function. Some organisms, like humans, animals, and plants, are multicellular, meaning they are made of many, many cells (for humans the number is in the trillions). However, other organisms, such as bacteria, are unicellular and consist of a single cell. Both animals and plants are eukaryotes, meaning their cells have a well-defined nucleus.

  SPANISH

  The History of the Spanish Language Spanish is an Indo-European language. The earliest ancestor of Spanish was spoken 5,000 years ago around the Black Sea. Indo-European language speakers migrated throughout the land, leading to fragmentation. With the Romanization of Spain in 218 b.c., Latin became the language people used, and it is the direct ancestor of Spanish and all other Romance languages.

  LESSON 2B

  XIA DYNASTY

  Yu the Great Da Yu, who would come to be known as Yu the Great, was the founder of the Xia Dynasty. He is famous for his involvement in stopping the great flooding of the Yangtze River; a process that lasted thirteen years. Yu the Great united the various ethnic groups, divided the land into nine provinces, and most notably, taught the people methods on how to control floodwater through the building of canals.

  PHONICS

  Synthetic Phonics Synthetic phonics involves teaching children unfamiliar words through translating the sounds of each letter and blending them together, or synthesizing. This is used particularly when teaching very young children how to read. Synthetic phonics does not focus on names of letters until the sound of each letter is understood. This is to develop phonic awareness, meaning listeners can differentiate the smallest units of sound in a word.

  ZERO

  A Number That Means Nothing Zero precedes the number one, meaning it represents an absence of value. It is an even number; however, it is neither prime nor composite and neither positive nor negative. The use of zero as a number, meaning a symbol representing a value of nothing, was first found in India around the eighth century a.d.

  CELLS

>   Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells There are two basic types of cells; prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic means “before a nucleus,” and eukaryotic means “possessing a true nucleus.” Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus, are usually single-celled organisms, and were the first organisms to live on Earth. Examples of prokaryotic cells are bacteria. On the other hand, eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and organelles, and are the types of cells found in humans, plants, and animals.